How sympathetic a character Essay Example for Free

How sympathetic a character Essay Upon reading Aristophanes Wasps for the first time, Procleon, the antihero of the play, evokes a strange sort of sympathy. The part of us that wants to rebel against the system identifies with his character, and admires the way in which, in the second half of the play, he does what the man in the street would really like to do (K Dover) and generally places himself above authority. Aristophanes loads Procleons character with vulgarity and nastiness, but does it in such a way that an audience seeing the play for the first time will focus on sympathizing with him as the `heroic character more than his deep-seated and twisted darker side. For instance, in the first scene we see Procleon trapped inside his own home, treated not like a villain or monster, but a mentally ill obsessive, or trialophile. The more you warn him, the more he goes to court. Thats why weve had to bolt him in and guard the house for fear he gets out. The way the two slaves describe Procleons personality is quite comic. They describe him as a sad old man. He then tries to escape later on by holding on to the bottom of a donkey as it comes out of the house, in a parody of Odysseus in Homers Odyssey. On one hand, we find his wit amusing, and he tries to mirror the cunning of Odysseus, and on the other hand we laughingly pity him for trying such an idea, especially onstage as it looks absurd. Aristophanes is poking fun at the latest trend in Athenian society in the ridiculous person of Procleon. However, Athenian litigiousness and trial mania are not his only target. In his conversion from his former jurymans life, Procleon becomes a caricature of an upper-class snob engaging in one of the well-heeled sets favourite addictions: dressing up in your finery, attending drinking parties and meetings of secret societies and going on drunken rampages through the streets, beating up passers by, knocking over statues, mauling slaves and women, etc. By the end of the play, its hard to tell whether Procleon is ny better off for having traded a poor mans pastime for a rich mans. In the first half of the play, we  see Procleon as a bloodthirsty bastard, a sadistic slave to Cleon whose only friends are the similarly savage, vespine jurymen. Just seeing this feeble army of nasty old men, we find immediate comedy. On the surface, nothing about Procleon seems too bad, just a rather crazed old man with a strange obsession. He enjoys voting defendants down: he is comically sadistic. D. MacDowell However, when we look deeper into the play and Procleons character, we see that there is a far darker and more sinister side to him. First of all, there is the fact that the only reason he enjoys sitting on the jury so much is so that he can wreak pain and suffering upon innocent people. I long to come to court with you, some solid, lasting harm to do. There is also the way in which he treats his daughter, in a rather incestuous manner. she leans over to give me a kiss and fish out those three obols with her tongue! spends his days in the infliction of pain on others and his evenings in running his hand up his daughters skirt. K Dover.

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India

Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5 Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India Plant Diversity and Angiosperms in India INTRODUCTION Angiosperms or flowering plants (also called Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or Anthophyta) are the most diverse group of the plant kingdom, comprising of about 2,50,000 species in 350 families (Kenrick, 1999). Flowering plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and â€Å"successful† extant plant group, containing well over 95% of all land plant species alive today (Simpson, 2006). Angiosperms are characterized by (i) seeds produced within a carpel with a stigmatic surface for pollen germination, (ii) a much reduced female gametophyte, consisting in most cases of just eight nuclei in seven cells; and (3) double fertilization, leading to the formation of a typically triploid nutritive tissue called endosperm (Judd et al., 2002). Several apomorphies distinguish the angiosperms from all other land plants: (1) the flower, usually with an associated perianth, (2) stamens with two lateral thecae, each composed of two microsporangia, (3) a reduced, 3-nucleate male gametophyte, (4) c arpels and fruit formation, (5) ovules with two integuments, (6) a reduced, 8-nucleate female gametophyte, (7) endosperm formation and (8) sieve tube members (Simpson, 2006). Some of these apomorphic features, which represent the product of a unique evolutionary event, have become further modified in particular lineages of angiosperms. Almost all angiosperms produce vessels in the xylem tissue, though this feature probably evolved within the group. Angiosperm phloem differs from that of all other plants in having sieve tube elements accompanied by one or more â€Å"companion cells† that are derived from the same mother cell. Flowering plants grow in virtually every habitable region and are dominant in some aquatic and most terrestrial ecosystems, the notable exception to the latter being coniferous forests. Angiosperms comprise the great bulk of our economically important plants, including our most valuable food crops. India with a geographical area of about 32, 87,263 sq km is the seventh largest and tenth industrialized country of the world. It is situated between 804 N to 3706 N latitude and 6807 E to 97025 E longitude. The longitudinal variation divides Indian subcontinent into four climatological zones, viz., equatorial, tropical, subtropical and warm temperate. The forest cover of the country have been estimated to be 6, 37,293 km2 (19.39% of the geographic area of the country) and includes dense forest (3, 77,358 km2), open forest (2, 55,064 km2) and mangrove (4,871 km2). India represents about 11% of world’s flora in just about 2.4% of total land mass. Out of the 25 biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ identified in the world (Myers, 1990), India has two, namely Eastern Himalaya and Western Ghats. These hotspots posses majority of plant diversity in India. In terms of species diversity, approximately 45,000 plant species are found in India (Khoshoo, 1994, 1995; Sharma et al., 1997). The angiosperms are represented by c. 17,500 species out of which 5725 species are endemic to India. About 28% of the total Indian flora and about 33% of angiosperms occurring in India are endemic (Nayar, 1996). It is roughly estimated that about 10% of flowering plant species in India are threatened and 34 plant species have been reported to be extinct (Nayar and Sastry, 1987-1990). The studies on Indian plants were first initiated by the European visitors. Even before the publication of Species Plantarum by Linnaeus (1753), Hendrik Van Rheede (1678-1703) started publication of his monumental 12 volume work ‘Hortus Malabaricus’. However, actual work on Indian flora was initiated by Roxburgh (1814, 1820- 1824) and later by Hooker and Thompson (1855). The publication of Flora of British India by Sir J.D. Hooker (1872- 1897) gave a stimulus to taxonomic studies in our country and since then several regional and state floras have been published. In 1954, Botanical Survey of India was revived with a view to make intensive studies of local flora especially to gather precise information on the identity, floristic diversity, distribution, ecological association, phenology, medicinal and economic uses of plants. India is immensely rich in biological diversity. Such richness is largely due to varied physical environment, latitude, altitude, geology and climate. The climate and altitudinal variations coupled with varied ecological habitats have contributed in the development of immensely rich vegetation wealth, and varied flora and fauna forming a very unique biodiversity. Seeing the rich plant diversity, Hooker (1904) commented that ‘The Indian flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe’. The Indian flora represents taxa occurring in different countries including Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Indo-China. There are even the representatives from African, American, Australian and European countries. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT Bio-geographical Territories in World The Indian region is one of the most diverse bio-geographic regions of the world having wide ranging topography from permanently snow covered high Himalayan ranges to plains at sea level, low lying swamps and mangroves, island systems, tropical evergreen rain forests, fertile alluvial plains, hot deserts and high altitude cold deserts. The climate ranges from tropical and sub-tropical in Indo-Gangetic plains and in the peninsular regions to temperate and arctic in the Himalayan region. Biogeographically India represents two of the major realms (Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan) and three biomes. Considering the vastness of the country and variation pattern in different areas, the country is divided into ten botanical regions with distinct bioclimatic conditions. These include: Coromandal coast, Malabar, Indus plain, Indian desert, Gangetic plain, Assam, Eastern Himalaya, Central Himalaya, Western Himalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep and minicoy group of islands (Mudgal and Hajra, 1997). India harbors very diverse climatic conditions and thus fosters different types of habitats. The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalaya and the Western Ghats. The Indian Himalayan region is spread over the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and a part of Assam, along with eight districts of Uttarakhand and one district of West Bengal. Biogeographically, the Indian Himalayan region falls under Boreal Zone which has two sub-zones, viz., Sino-Siberian and Sino-Himalayan. The area can be divided into four distinct zones longitudinally: (i) the Siwalik (900 – 1500 m), (ii) the outer Himalaya (1500 – 3500 m), (iii) the middle or lesser Himalaya (3600 – 4600 m), and (iv) the Greater Himalaya (above 4,600 m). This complex mountain system consists of narrow and deep valleys, glaciers and fertile terrain. Five climatic zones can be delineated in the Himalayan region based on geographic and physiographic factors. These are: (1) Warm tropical, (2) Warm sub-tropical, (3) Cool temperate, (4) Alpine and (5) Arctic. While these are only broad zonations, there are many local variations in the climate due to precipitation, temperature, wind patterns, humidity etc. The type and nature of soils also vary vastly in the Himalayan region from deep alluvial to the thin and bare soils of the high mountains. The nature of the soil depends upon the rocks, the prevailing climatic conditions, topography and vegetation. According to Udvardy (1975), biodiversity exists on earth in 8 broad realms with 193 bio-geographical provinces. It has been estimated that world’s 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru and Zaire together hold 70% of its total flowering plant diversity. These countries have been termed as â€Å"Megadiversity† countries (Mc Neely et al., 1990) Rodgers and Panwar (1990) have divided India into 10 phytogeographic zones and 24 biotic provinces. Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1990) have recognized 16 phytogeographical zones in India. On the other hand, Das (1996) has recognized 9 physiographic regions within the Indian Territory. Chowdhery and Murti (2000) have recognized 11 phytogeographic regions for India, each of which have its uniqueness in ecosystem, vegetation and floristic composition. These phytogeographic regions are: Western Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Gangetic plains, North East India, Semi arid and Arid regions, Deccan Plateau, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep and Coastal regions. Distribution of Angiosperms in India In India, the vascular plants form the most dominant and conspicuous vegetation cover comprising of over 17,500 species of angiosperms which represents more than 7% of the worlds known flowering plant species (Hooker, 1872-1897; Karthikeyan et al., 1989; Sharma and Balakrishnan, 1993; Sharma and Sanjappa, 1993; Sharma et al., 1993; Hajra et al., 1995; Mudgal and Hajra 1997- 1999; Singh et al., 2000; Karthikeyan, 2000). These species are distributed in more than 4000 genera occurring in diffenent ecosystems from the humid tropics of Western Ghats to the Alpine zones of the Himalayas and from Mangrooves of tidal Sunderbans to the dry desert of Rajasthan. In India, dicots are represented by 2,282 genera and 12,750 species whereas monocots are represented by 702 genera and 4,250 species. Dicots account for c. 75% of flowering plants in terms of both genera and species. On the other hand, remaining 25% is contributed by monocots. Out of 511 recognized plant families (Brummit, 1992), 320 families with more than 4000 genera are represented in the Indian flora. Of which Poaceae is the largest family with about 263 genera and more than 1200 species. In India, over 60 families of flowering plants are monotypic, e.g., Illiciaceae, Ruppiaceae, Turneraceae, Tetracentraceae, etc. Asragaluts, Carex, Dendrobium, Ficus, Habenaria, Impatiens, Primula, Rhododendron, Saussurea, Taraxacum, etc. are some of the dominant genera of flowering plants in India. Out of the estimated 17,500 species of angiosperms, approximately 15% species are trees which include some of the highly valued timber species of the world and belong to the families like Annonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, etc. There are several botanical curiosities like Aeginetia indica, Balanophora dioica, Boschiniackia himalaica, Drosera, Epipogium, Galeola, Mitrastemon yamamotoi, Monotropa, Nepenthes khasiana, Pinguicula, Sapria himalayana, Utricularia spp., etc. Species in certain groups like Orchids, Bamboos, Rhododendrons, Citrus, Hedychiums, Impatiens, Pedicularis, Primulas, etc. exhibit remarkable diversity in India (Rao, 1994). Dominant angiospermic families in India are given in table1 (after Groombridge, 1992; Sharma et al., 1997). Table 1. Dominant families of dicots and monocots Insectivorous and parasitic plants The carnivorous plants (insectivorous plants) trap and digest insects to meet the requirement of nitrogen deficiency. Altogether over 450 species of carnivorous plants have been reported of which approximately 30 species occur in India. The insectivorous taxa belong to family Droseraceae (3 spp.), Nepenthaceae (1 spcies) and Lentibulariaceae (36 spp.). The parasitic plant species are prominent in Loranthaceae (46 spp.), Santalaceae (10 spp.), Balanophoraceae (6 spp.), Rafflesiaceae (1 spp.), Cuscutaceae (12 spp.) and Orobanchaceae (54 spp.). Aquatic plants About 2 percent of all flowering plants known in the world inhabit water bodies and more than 50 percent of these are represented in Indian subcontinent (Lavania et al., 1990). Some important aquatic plants families are: Alismataceae (8 spp.), Aponogetonaceae (6 spp.), Azollaceae (1 sp.), Barclayaceae (2 spp.), Butomaceae (1 sp.), Cabombaceae (2 spp.), Callitrichaceae (3 species), Isoetaceae (10 spp.), Lemnaceae (14 spp.), Najadaceae (7 spp.), Nelumbonaceae (1 sp.), Nymphaeaceae (7 spp.), Podostemaceae (24 spp.), Pontederiaceae (13 spp.), Ceratophyllaceae (3 spp.), Hydrocharitaceae (13 spp.), Potamogetonaceae (18 spp.), Ruppiaceae (1 sp.), Salviniaceae (3 spp.), Trapaceae (2 spp.), Typhaceae (4 spp.), Zannichelliaceae (1 sp.), etc. The members of families Podostemaceae and Tristichaceae grow on rocks under water in fast flowing streams. The aquatic plants in India are highly diversified comprising free-floating forms (Eichhornia crassipes, Lemna perpusila, Nymphoides hydrophylla, Trapa natans var. bispinosa, Pistia stratiotes, Wolffia microscopia, W. globosa), rooted aquatics with their foliage floating (Nymphaea nouchali, N. stellata, Euryale ferox, Nelumbo nucifera), submerged aquatics (Vallisnaria natans, Hydrilla verticillata, Najas graminea, Potamogeton pectinatus) emergent aquatics (Scirpus maritimus, Cyperus articulates, Sagittaria trifolia, S. guayanensis subsp. leppula) and marsh plants (Ranunculus scleratus, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum paludosum, Polygonum barbatum, P. glabrum). The aquatic flora play an important role as water purifier by absorbing heavy metals, e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum (chromium), Bacopa monnieri (copper and cadmium). Limosella aquatica, Hippuris vulgaris occur in subalpine-alpine lakes. Mangroves Mangroves are the plants that inhabit coastal regions and estuaries. They are adapted to survive under marshy conditions. In India, mangroves cover an area of approximately 6700 Km ² which constitutes c. 7 percent of the world’s mangroves. The largest stretch of mangroves in India occurs in Sunderbans (West Bengal) which covers an area of about 4200 km ². It has been designated as World Heritage site of which 80% of them are restricted to Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman Nicobar islands (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000). The remaining taxa are scattered in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and Karnataka. Some of the dominant mangrove species include Avicennia marina, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera fomes, Lumnitzera spp., Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, R. stylosa, Sonneratia spp., Xylocarpus spp., etc. The shrubby Aegialitis rotundifolia and Acanthus ilicifolius are common o n poor saline plains. The herbaceous succulent halophytes are represented by Aegiceras corniculatus, Suaeda brachiata, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Salicornia brachiata. The characteristic mangrove palms are: Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa. Indicator species Some species of angiosperms growing on metalliferous soils accumulate large amounts of metals in their roots and reflect the levels of metal present in the soil (indicators). For example, presence of copper is indicated by Astragalus spp., Croton roxburghii, Hyptis suaveolens, Holarrhena pubescens, Impatiens balsamina, Vernonia cinerea, and indicates presence of Uranium (Aery, 1977; Venkatesh, 1964, 1966). Diversification of Primitive and Advanced Families The primitive families are confined to those regions which are very old in geological time scale in comparison to the newly developed areas. Assam, North-east Indian region and Deccan Peninsula are older in comparison to the other phytogeographical regions of India. These regions are more or less identical in age with Sri Lanka, South West Chinese region and Malay Peninsula. The Deccan Peninsula shows its floristic relationship with Sri Lanka and Malay provinces, while the North east India shows its floristic relationship with Myanmar, South West Chinese Provinces and Malay Peninsula. Thus the Malay region shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula on one hand and North east India on the other. By this way the North East India shows similarity with Deccan Peninsula to some extent (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). India (Eastern Himalaya including North east India) is considered as a sanctuary of primitive flowering plants. The occurrence of such a large number of primitive angiosperms led Takhtajan (1969) to designate this region as the ‘Cradle of Flowering Plants’ where angiosperms have diversified (Table 2) Table.2. Primitive flowering plants occurring in India (after Rao, 1994) The advanced families occur in those areas which are comparatively very young in the geological time scale. On the basis of this idea it can be stated that the Himalayan region of India is very young in its age as compared to Deccan Peninsula and North East Indian regions of India, as it harbours most of the advanced families with well diversified restricted genera and species. A comparative account of diversification of primitive and advanced families of India and its adjoining area is given in table 3. The advanced families are young in their age and also they are confined to the areas which are also geologically young, they are unable to spread in the wider regions. On the other hand, primitive plant families are older in their age and also found to confined in those areas which are geologically very old. So they get sufficient time to spread over larger areas, as a result of which the primitive families show less number of restricted genera and species in their credit in comparison to the advanced families (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2006). Habitats Different ecological habitats occur in India ranging from tropical rainforest, subtropical savanna or shrublands, temperate forest, alpine mosses to xerophytic variation of desert. The habitat types vary from the humid tropical Western Ghats to the hot deserts of Rajasthan, from cold deserts of Ladakh to the long, warm cost line stretches of peninsular India. While Cherrapunji and Mawphlong in the north-eastern state of Meghalaya are the two wettest places on earth, Dras in Ladakh is the coldest inhabited place of the world. Phytogeographically, the eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floristic region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring states of northern India along a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in south-west China. In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap those of India, Bhutan and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal. Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the eastern Himalaya (Anonymous 1999). This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan, Afro-tropic and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land. The region is recognized as refugium of flowering plants and center of active speciation (Rao, 1994). The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region inclu de Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, Himantandraceae, Lardizalbalaceae, Magnoliaceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Winteraceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya, Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra 1977). Regions of High Diversity India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. It represents an example of conglomeration of diverse bioclimates influenced by neighbouring areas (particularly Mediterranean), the unique location, peninsular land mass, Gangetic plains and the crown of complex chain of mountain systems – the Himalaya. The Himalayan region with only 18% of India’s land area, houses 81.4% of the country’s stock of gymnosperms, 47% of angiosperms, 59.5% of lichens, 58.7% of pteridophytes, 43.9% of bryophytes and 53.07% of fungi found in India. Orchidaceae with over 1331 taxa (S. Misra, 2007) is one of the dominant families and probably the second largest among all families of flowering plant known from India. Of these 407 taxa are endemic to India. Out of the 18 monotypic orchid genera of India, 13 are found in the Himalayan region. In the Eastern Himalaya, the Orchid family is the largest, with 60% species, whereas in the Western Himalaya, Asteraceae with 540 species is the largest family followed by Poaceae with 439 species and Fabaceae with 362 species. Carex with more than 100 species and infraspecific categories is the largest genus in the Himalaya. Rhododendron with 96 species and infra-specific categories, and Astragalus with 90 species, is the largest genera in the Eastern and Western Himalaya, respectively. Some other plants with pronounced diversity in the Eastern Himalaya include the Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) with 18 species out of 35 Indian species, and numerous species of bamboos. The Eastern Himalaya is a cradle of numerous primitive angiosperms, such as Manglietia and Euptelea (Magnoliaceae) and Tetracentron (Tetracentraceae). Christollea himalayensis, recorded from Mt. Camet is the flowering plant occurring at the highest altitude (6300 msl). Arceuthobium minutissimum, (small angiosperm) grows on Himalayan conifers. Apart from these botanical curios, the Himalayan region has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. The floristic richness has also rendered the North-Eastern region and Western Ghats to be recognized as two hotspots among 25 hotspots identified throughout the world. The humid tropical conditions met within these regions not only support exceptionally diverse vegetation but have also resulted in speciation in several genera, thus adding to the high endemicity of the flora (Nayar, 1996). In addition to these two, there are about 40 other sites in different phytogeographical zones of India which have high degree of endemism and genetic diversity. Mc Neely et al. (1990) estimated that 70% of worlds total flowering plants occur in 12 countries and these have been designated as Mega diversity centres or mega ­biodiversity country. The earth’s 25 biodiversity hotspot regions collectively cover about 2% of the planet’s land surface, yet claim more than 50% of all terrestrial species diversity. They have within them a phenomenal 1, 25,635 plant species. The top 11 hotspots (out of 25) for plant endemism harbor 5000 or more species as endemics. It accounts for 93,214 plant species, or 37.3% of the total global plant endemics (Myers 1988). Western Ghats The Western Ghats, which covers an area of approximately 1, 60,000 Km ², are among the 25 biodiversity hotspots globally identified. The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the regions complex geography, produces a great variety of vegetation types. These include scrub forests in the low-lying rain shadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. Based on the ecological factors and floristic composition, four major forests and 23 floristic types have been identified. Eastern Himalaya Eastern Himalaya covering the states of Sikkim, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland is the richest of the phytogeographic regions of India affording the highest plant/ animal diversity (Rao, 1994). This region is characterized by high rainfall and humidity. The abundant rains and high humidity contribute the occurrence of largest number of species in this region. North eastern region of India, blessed with wide range of physiography and ecoclimatic conditions, is the richest biodiversity centres of the Indian subcontinent (Hooker and Thompson, 1855; Hooker, 1905; Chatterjee, 1962; Rao, 1974). The north eastern India has a geographical area of about 2, 55,050 Km ². The rich plant wealth of this region has been reported by Hooker (1854). Further, Hooker’s work on â€Å"Flora of British India† (1872-97) and â€Å"Sketches on Flora of British India† (1905), presents a very detailed account on vegetation and flora of this region. Kanjilal et al. (1934-1940), in their â€Å"Flora of Assam† have provided a detailed account with emphasis on woody flora of this region. There are works on â€Å"Forest flora of Meghalaya† by Haridasan and Rao (1985, 1987) and â€Å"Grasses of North eastern India† by Shukla (1996). There are several genera endemic to Eastern Himalaya. Some important endemic genera are Aucuba, Bryocarpum, Pleurospermopsis, Gamblea, Lepidostemon, Parajaeschkaea, Paroxygraphis, Risleya, Sphaerosacme, Treutlera and Brachycaulos. Cyathopus is endemic to Sikkim. Some genera like Biswarea, Hymenandra, Jejosephia, Neoluffa, Pauia, etc. are endemic to North eastern India. Some important Eastern Himalayan endemic species are Abies densa, Agapetes incurvata, A. sikkimensis, Dipsacus atratus, Eriobotrya hookeriana, Geum macrosepalum, Larix griffithiana, Lindera heterophylla, Liparis perpusilla, Lloydia flavonutans, Maddenia himalica, Meconopsis grandis, M. superba, M. villosa, Myricaria albiflora, Primula whitei, Rhododendron baileyi, R. camelliaeflorum, R. ciliatum, R. glaucophyllum, R. grande, R. lantanum, R. lindleyi, R. wallichii, R .wightii, Rubus fragarioides, Sassurea conica, Acanthus leucostachys, Aconitum assamicum, Anoectochilus sikkimensis, Aeschynanthus parasiticus, Baliospermum micranthum, Berberis dasyclada, Calamus leptospadix, Calanthe densiflora, Capparis acutifolia, Cotoneaster assamensis, etc. (Chowdhery and Murti, 2000) Plant Diversity in Western Himalaya The Western Himalayan region is one of the 12 biogeographic regions of India and includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttaranchal. This region constitutes the alpine zone, temperate, humid and warm climatic conditions. The main portion of Western Himalaya lies in J K state comprising 67.5

Frankenstein Essays -- Literary Analysis, Mary Shelley

â€Å"I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me† (Shelley 127). A monster with bad intentions generates a bad reputation in society. However, does a monster whose sole purpose is to achieve and excel treated wrongly because of the way he looks? According to John Bugg’s â€Å"Master of their language: Education and Exile† The creature’s narrative of education unfolds from a personal realization of alterity. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the creature’s motivation to broaden his education in order to be accepted by society. Despite the creature’s good intentions to broaden his education, his physical appearance disallows him to obtain an education, and therefore the only residual is to seek revenge on his creator. Naturally the creature believes that if he is well educated, people will look beyond his hideous appearance and accept him. Through the inspiration the De Laceys give, â€Å" The creature comes to view the De Laceys as superior beings, who would be the arbiters of [his] future destiny† (Shelley 90). Consequently the creature comes to the realization that the De Laceys are the only people who might be able to broaden his education. Hence he plans on visiting the old blind man because he will not be able to judge the creature by his appearance. In The creature will confront the old man when the rest of the De Laceys are out so he can create a friendship. The creature contemplates his future and he is â€Å"Longing to be accepted into the world he sees and romances through the crack in the De Laceys wall, the creature believes that literacy is the key† (Bugg 661). The creature knows that no one will be able to look past his appearance if he’s not e... ...nsible for what the creature has become. The creature responds,â€Å" You can blast my other passions, but revenge remains-revenge, henceforth dearer than light of food! I may die, but first you, my tyrant and tormentor, shall curse the sun that gazes on your misery† (Shelley 154). Victor has taken everything away from the creature, but the creature will always have the mindset on revenge for Victor. The creature will not rest until Victor feels the same misery he felt. This is the final stage of the creature’s life where he ignores his surroundings and takes matters into his own hand. The creature’s failure to blend in with society creates hatred in the creature’s heart for his creator. The only option for the creature is to seek revenge. This shows that the creature’s determination of destroying his creator was far greater than the creatures determination to fit in. Frankenstein Essays -- Literary Analysis,  Mary Shelley â€Å"I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me† (Shelley 127). A monster with bad intentions generates a bad reputation in society. However, does a monster whose sole purpose is to achieve and excel treated wrongly because of the way he looks? According to John Bugg’s â€Å"Master of their language: Education and Exile† The creature’s narrative of education unfolds from a personal realization of alterity. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the creature’s motivation to broaden his education in order to be accepted by society. Despite the creature’s good intentions to broaden his education, his physical appearance disallows him to obtain an education, and therefore the only residual is to seek revenge on his creator. Naturally the creature believes that if he is well educated, people will look beyond his hideous appearance and accept him. Through the inspiration the De Laceys give, â€Å" The creature comes to view the De Laceys as superior beings, who would be the arbiters of [his] future destiny† (Shelley 90). Consequently the creature comes to the realization that the De Laceys are the only people who might be able to broaden his education. Hence he plans on visiting the old blind man because he will not be able to judge the creature by his appearance. In The creature will confront the old man when the rest of the De Laceys are out so he can create a friendship. The creature contemplates his future and he is â€Å"Longing to be accepted into the world he sees and romances through the crack in the De Laceys wall, the creature believes that literacy is the key† (Bugg 661). The creature knows that no one will be able to look past his appearance if he’s not e... ...nsible for what the creature has become. The creature responds,â€Å" You can blast my other passions, but revenge remains-revenge, henceforth dearer than light of food! I may die, but first you, my tyrant and tormentor, shall curse the sun that gazes on your misery† (Shelley 154). Victor has taken everything away from the creature, but the creature will always have the mindset on revenge for Victor. The creature will not rest until Victor feels the same misery he felt. This is the final stage of the creature’s life where he ignores his surroundings and takes matters into his own hand. The creature’s failure to blend in with society creates hatred in the creature’s heart for his creator. The only option for the creature is to seek revenge. This shows that the creature’s determination of destroying his creator was far greater than the creatures determination to fit in.

Violence On Television: Violence Is Everywhere Essay -- essays researc

Violence on Television: Violence is Everywhere " I never learned which party was victorious, nor the cause of the war, But I felt for the rest of that day, as if I had had my feelings excited and harrowed by witnessing the struggle..." (Henry David Thoreau) These days our whole life seems to revolve around violence. There are so many channels on TV that advocate violence on a daily basis. Sports that we see every Sunday stir up aggressiveness and bring anger to a high level. Around school conflicts seem to occur frequently. We get excited whenever we come across these situations and sometimes don't know what caused the ordeal in the first place but nevertheless it grabs us and we become involved, mentally and/or physically. The television set is a virtual fire hose of violenc...

Cell Phone Use Should be Prohibited While Driving :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

Cell Phone Use Should be Prohibited While Driving A small sedan is crawling through an evening of rush hour traffic on I-65. Aware of the huge SUV attempting to merge into the lane, the driver slows in an effort to allow the vehicle to claim a space in the horde of eager business men and women fleeing from offices and pushing towards typical Friday night destinations. The driver of the SUV is unaware of the tiny car beside her and smashes into the automobile and curses into her cell phone. A witness a few cars behind quickly dials 911 on his cell phone. Unable to pay attention to traffic and dial the phone at the same time, he crashes into the truck in front of him causing a pile up of several cars. Because of the distraction they provide to motorists, cell phones should be banned from use by drivers of moving vehicles. According to the Cellular Telecommunications & Internet Association (CTIA), nearly 168 million U.S. citizens used cell phones in August 2004 (Cell Phones and Driving). Without a doubt the number increases daily. Cell phones are becoming as American as baseball and apple pie. The insane amount of cell phones in the hands of distracted drivers can only mean one thing: a higher chance for an accident and that is exactly what is happening. ?A 1997 article published in the New England Journal of Medicine [stated]?the use of cell phones in motor vehicles?quadrupled risk of collision? (Cell Phones?on Highways?). This is a large increase considering accidents are being cause by a wireless device being used for meaningless phone conversations while sharing an interstate with other distracted drivers. Removing cell phones, an obvious distraction, is one way to reduce the number of traffic accidents. Simply not answering the persistent ring or allowing a passenger to dial and make the p hone conversation could save many lives. Life in America has become so fast paced that the separation between work and home is not apparent?especially when major business deals are being made by business men and women who are making left turns and sitting at four-way stops. As stated in the Electronic Engineering Times, ?Harvard?s Center for Risk Analysis?[shows]?2,600 people a year are killed and 330,000 are injured in car crashes involving cell phones? (1). With these statistics it would be expect that police officers responding to car accidents would document the proper information and ask if a cell phone was involved in a car accident.

Teen Drug Addiction: a Chronic Ilness

Drug addiction is a chronic disease, associated with mental illnesses, and similar to other chronic diseases such as type II diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. No one chooses to be a drug addict or to develop heart disease. In my paper, I am going to research some issues of teenage substance abuse and examine some of the biological factors that cause drug abuse and addiction. I will also explain how the brain reacts to drugs. In addition, I will also provide statistics on the number of teens afflicted with drug abuse their race and gender. Furthermore, I will be discussing how drug addiction affects the individual and their families, along with social, biological, psychological and vocational affects of the disease, and available community support and interventions. Good What is drug addiction? Addiction is a chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences to the individual that is addicted and to those around them. Drug addiction is a brain disease because the abuse of drugs leads to changes in the structure and function of the brain. Although, it is true for most people the initial decision to take drugs is voluntary, overtime the changes in the brain caused by repeated drug abuse can affect a person's self-control and ability to make sound decisions, and at the same time send intense impulses to take drugs. Source? From a medical perspective, substance abuse is a syndrome or maladaptive pattern of substance use. That result in a clinically significant impairment during a 12-month period, resulting on one or more of the following: recurring substance use causes a significant decrease in the ability to perform well and/or failure to fulfill obligations at work school or home despite negative social or interpersonal consequences (McLennan, A. , 2010). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) issued by the American Psychiatric Association, defines â€Å"substance dependence† as; â€Å"when an individual persist in use of alcohol or other drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substance dependence may then be diagnosed. (DSM) defines â€Å"substance abuse† as; a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by one (or more) of the following. These must re-occur within a 12-month period. Recurring substance use resulting in a failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home (e. g. , repeated absences or poor work performance related to substance use; substance related absences, suspensions or expulsions from school; neglect of children or household). Substance use disorders often affect a combination of psychological, biological, and environmental and social issues. Many of the substances are included in the disorders, including alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, opiates, sedatives, hallucinogens, and halides, or PCP. Substance use usually results in the complex disorder, which is addiction (Danielson, C. , et. , al. 2010). Experts have identified four stages in the addiction process: Stage one, is the exploratory stage, stage two, is the recreational stage, stage three, is the abusive stage, and stage four, is the dependent stage that eventually develops into an addiction. Once the person is addicted to a substance, they often begin to abuse them. Drug addiction most often results in a loss of choice. The desire to use the drug may have its roots in and need to ease the situation or unpleasant circumstance. This is dangerous because it is only one-step further away from using the drug for recreation and one-step closer to an addiction. Drug abuse is associated with the compulsivity that in turn leads to dependency and addiction. This is normally true; however, there are cases of individuals who abuse drugs without becoming dependent to them. Everyone’s brain reacts differently to drugs. Source? Brain Reaction When drugs enter the brain, they can interrupt the work and actually change how the brain performs its jobs. These changes are what lead to compulsive drug use, the hallmark of addiction ( NIDA, 2010). Drugs are chemicals. They work in the brain by tapping into its communication system and interfering with the way nerve cells normally send, receive, and process information. Different drugs—because of their chemical structures—work differently. In fact, some drugs can change the brain in ways that last long after the person has stopped taking drugs, maybe even permanently. This is more likely when drugs are taken repeatedly. All drugs of abuse—nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, and others—affect the brain’s â€Å"reward† circuit, which is part of the limbic system. Normally, the reward circuit responds to pleasurable experiences by releasing the neurotransmitter dopamine, which creates feelings of pleasure, and tells the brain that this is something important—pay attention and remember it. Drugs hijack this system, causing unusually large amounts of dopamine to flood the system. Sometimes, this lasts for a long time compared to what happens when a natural reward stimulates dopamine. This flood of dopamine is what causes the â€Å"high† or euphoria associated with drug abuse. These brain changes drive a person to seek out and use drugs compulsively, despite negative consequences such as stealing, losing friends, family problems, or other physical or mental problems brought on by drug abuse—this is addiction (NIDA, 2010). How does drug addiction affect the individual? Many teenagers face the problem of addiction. Some addictions are drugs, alcohol abuse and recurrent substance abuse, even when it is physically hazardous such as driving a car. Teens that are addicted feel a loss of control and are overwhelmed with the urge to search for and continue the use of drugs and alcohol despite negative consequences. Trying to understand this self-destructive behavior is difficult repeated drug use causes long-lasting changes to the function to the brain and the way it looks. It alters the brain interfering with the ability to think clearly, make good judgment, control behavior and to feel normal without the drug. There is a widespread notion that adolescents self medicate depression with drugs and alcohol, society appears to overlook the possibility that the substance use may precede or predict depression (NIDA, 2010). Psychological Affects  A chronic illness could be caused by substance abuse or the opposite may be true, chronic illness could even cause substance abuse. Either way, diagnosis of two illnesses makes treatment of both conditions complex. Individuals with a disease or chronic illness have easier access to prescription medication, making excessive use more likely and abusive. Depression, boredom, and frustration are psychological factors that can lead to a want to escape from reality. The need for acceptance as a result from alienation and oppression also contribute to the use to gain social acceptance (Falvo, 2005). Physical, Social, and Biological Affects Chronic illness and disease have a cause and effect relationship with drug use. Some physical effects of alcohol dependence and use are important to examine. Initially, alcohol acts as a stimulant, the level of intoxication increases however, it acts as a depressant, causing physical coordination problems, ataxia and decreased ability to perform. Judgment may also be impaired. While increased levels of alcohol use can cause confusion, mild stupor, amnesia, and coma and could eventually lead to death. Many negative, complex health issues are common from alcohol abuse. Some examples include blood abnormalities causing the presence of large abnormal red blood cells, a decrease in the number of bold white blood cells and platelets. Throat and esophagus cancer and liver disease are also common among many other medical diagnoses. Problems of the heart, liver and pancreas may develop, also muscle fiber destruction and weakness, mal-absorption of nutrients and vision problems are common due to the continued use of alcohol and drugs Research An interesting finding from a new study published in the, American Journal of Preventive Medicine suggests that adolescents, particularly girls, who engage in sex behavior and drug use are at risk for future depression. The previous notion was that adolescents self medicate depression with sex and drugs not the other way around. Among boys, their findings suggest that binge drinking and marijuana use increased the likelihood of depression in boys more than four-fold. From the information that is available regarding depression and substance use and abuse, it is evident that depression may contribute to substance use and abuse. Although, it is more likely that depression is the result of substance use and abuse (C. Danielson, et. al. , 2003). Good Second research project? Statistics To understand the startling impact addiction has on teens, statistics are needing to be examined. In the United States; â€Å"On average, in 2006, about 1. 2 million adolescents, each 12 to 17 years of age smoked cigarettes, 631,000- drank alcohol, and 586,000 -used marijuana. In addition, about 49,000 adolescents used inhalants, 27,000- used hallucinogens, 13,000-used cocaine, and 38,000- used heroine. To continue with these phenomenal statistics, this was an average â€Å"day† in the United States. Nearly 8,000 adolescents drank alcohol for the first time; 4,300 -used illicit drugs for the first time; 4000- smoked their first cigarette, 3600- smoked marijuana for the first time, and another 2000 used pain relievers for non-medical reasons for the first time (Sussman ,S. 2010)†. Treatments, Interventions and Community Support Alcohol and substance addiction initially requires detoxification and then a lifelong treatment plan that includes individual therapy, family and group counseling, and self-help groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous. There is Ala Non and Ala Teen for families. Families that live with an addict need moral and emotional support. The individual and the families know that abstinence from alcohol and other substances is the goal of treatment These are the many reasons why interventions and community support for teens are vital, for their well-being, and survival, getting the needed help for teens now, before they enter adulthood. An article, â€Å"Drugs and Teen Substance Abuse,† cited the most recent data about substance abuse facilities. The data collected about outpatient treatment and inpatient residential treatment facilities. There are more than 76,000 youth in outpatient treatment facilities, 10,000 in hospital residential treatment, and 1000 in hospital inpatient treatment. Experimentation with drugs among teens is common. Teams have the tendency to feel indestructible and immune to the possible problems that their actions can cause themselves and others. They are especially unaware of the link between their actions today and the consequences tomorrow. Using tobacco and alcohol at a young age increase the risk of using drugs later in life. Some teens seem to be able to experiment, use occasionally, stop and start again without becoming dependent on, or develop a need to use continually. Others will develop a tendency and addiction, often moving onto more serious drugs, causing harm to themselves and others (APA, 2010 ). Most people go into drug treatment either because the court ordered them to do so, or because loved ones urged them to seek treatment. The good news is that, according to scientific studies, people who enter drug treatment programs in which they face â€Å"high† pressure† to deal with their addiction can benefit from treatment, regardless of the reason they sought treatment in the first place (NIDA, 2008)†. My newly learned knowledge of researching this topic has helped me better understand the disease process of drug addiction. I took a personal note to the subject; I chose this topic to help me personally deal with my son and his abuse of marijuana. I do believe drug addiction is a chronic disease similar to other chronic diseases such as type II diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. No one chooses to be a drug addict or to develop heart disease.

Managerial Accounting Essay

Explain the distinguishing features of managerial accounting. Identify the three broad functions of management. Define the three classes of manufacturing costs. Distinguish between product and period costs. Explain the difference between a merchandising and a manufacturing income statement. Indicate how cost of goods manufactured is determined. Explain the difference between a merchandising and a manufacturing balance sheet. Identify trends in managerial accounting. Managerial accounting is a field of accounting that provides economic and financial information for managers and other internal users. (b) Mary is incorrect. Managerial accounting applies to all types of businesses—service, merchandising, and manufacturing. (a) Financial accounting is concerned primarily with external users such as stockholders, creditors, and regulators. In contrast, managerial accounting is concerned primarily with internal users such as officers and managers. Financial statements are the end product of financial accounting. The statements are prepared quarterly and annually. In managerial accounting, internal reports may be prepared as frequently as needed. The purpose of financial accounting is to provide general-purpose information for all users. The purpose of managerial accounting is to provide special-purpose information for specific decisions. 2. (b) (c) 3. Differences in the content of the reports are as follows: Financial †¢ Pertains to business as a whole and is highly aggregated. †¢ Limited to double-entry accounting and cost data. †¢ Generally accepted accounting principles. Managerial †¢ Pertains to subunits of the business and may be very detailed. Extends beyond double-entry accounting system to any relevant data. †¢ Standard is relevance to decisions. In financial accounting, financial statements are verified annually through an independent audit by certified public accountants. There are no independent audits of internal reports issued by managerial accountants. 4. Budgets are prepared by companies to provide future direction. Because the budget is also used as an evaluation tool, some managers try to game the budgeting process by underestimating their division’s predicted performance so that it will be easier to meet their performance targets. On the other hand, if the budget is set at unattainable levels, managers sometimes take unethical actions to meet targets to receive higher compensation or in some cases to keep their jobs. Karen should know that the management of an organization performs three broad functions: (1) Planning requires management to look ahead and to establish objectives. (2) Directing involves coordinating the diverse activities and human resources of a company to produce a smooth-running operation. (3) Controlling is the process of keeping the company’s activities on track. Disagree. Decision making is not a separate management function. Rather, decision making involves the exercise of good judgment in performing the three management functions explained in the answer to question five above. Employees with line positions are directly involved in the company’s primary revenue generating operating activities. Examples would include plant managers and supervisors, and the vice president of operations. In contrast, employees with staff positions are not directly involved in revenuegenerating operating activities, but rather serve in a support capacity to line employees. Examples include employees in finance, legal, and human resources. 5. 6. 7. 1-4 Copyright  © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Weygandt, Managerial Accounting, 5/e, Solutions Manual (For Instructor Use Only) Questions Chapter 1 (Continued) 8. CEOs and CFOs must now certify that financial statements give a fair presentation of the company’s operating results and its financial condition and that the company maintains an adequate system of internal controls. In addition, the composition of the board of directors and audit committees receives more scrutiny, and penalties for misconduct have increased. The differences between income statements are in the computation of the cost of goods sold as follows: Manufacturing company: Merchandising company: 10. Beginning finished goods inventory plus cost of goods manufactured minus ending finished goods inventory = cost of goods sold. Beginning merchandise inventory plus cost of goods purchased minus ending merchandise inventory = cost of goods sold. 9. The difference in balance sheets pertains to the presentation of inventories in the current asset section. In a merchandising company, only merchandise inventory is shown. In a manufacturing company, three inventory accounts are shown: finished goods, work in process, and raw materials. Manufacturing costs are classified as either direct materials, direct labor, or manufacturing overhead. No, Matt is not correct. The distinction between direct and indirect materials is based on two criteria: (1) physical association and (2) the convenience of making the physical association. Materials which can not be easily associated with the finished product are considered indirect materials. Product costs, or inventoriable costs, are costs that are a necessary and integral part of producing the finished product.